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As developers, we love abstractions.
Repositories, services, mappers, wrappers.
They make our code look "clean," they promise testability, and they give us the sense that we're building something flexible.

**Every abstraction is a loan.
You pay interest the moment you write it.**

Some abstractions earn their keep by isolating real volatility and protecting your system from change.
Others quietly pile up complexity, slow down onboarding, and hide performance problems behind layers of indirection.

Let's explore when abstractions pay dividends and when they become technical debt.

## When Abstractions Pay Off

The best abstractions **isolate true volatility**, the parts of your system that you genuinely expect to change.

### Example: Payment Processing

Your core business logic shouldn't depend directly on Stripe's SDK.
If you ever switch to Adyen or Braintree, you don't want that decision rippling through every corner of your codebase.
Here, an abstraction makes perfect sense:

```csharp
public interface IPaymentProcessor
{
    Task ProcessAsync(Order order, CancellationToken ct);
}

public class StripePaymentProcessor : IPaymentProcessor
{
    public async Task ProcessAsync(Order order, CancellationToken ct)
    {
        // Stripe-specific implementation
        // Handle webhooks, error codes, etc.
    }
}

public class AdyenPaymentProcessor : IPaymentProcessor
{
    public async Task ProcessAsync(Order order, CancellationToken ct)
    {
        // Adyen-specific implementation
        // Different API, same business outcome
    }
}
```

Now your business logic can stay focused on the domain:

```csharp {4}
public class CheckoutService(IPaymentProcessor processor)
{
    public Task CheckoutAsync(Order order, CancellationToken cancellationToken) =>
        processor.ProcessAsync(order, cancellationToken);
}
```

This abstraction isolates a genuinely unstable dependency (the payment provider) while keeping checkout logic independent.
When Stripe changes their API or you switch providers, only one class needs to change.

**That's a good abstraction**.
It buys you optionality where you actually need it.

## When Abstractions Become Technical Debt

Problems arise when we abstract things that aren't actually volatile.
We end up wrapping stable libraries or creating layers that don't add real value.
The "clean" layer you added today becomes tomorrow's maintenance burden.

### The Repository That Lost Its Way

Most teams start with something reasonable:

```csharp
public interface IUserRepository
{
    Task<IEnumerable<User>> GetAllAsync();
}
```

But as requirements evolve, so does the interface:

```csharp
public interface IUserRepository
{
    Task<IEnumerable<User>> GetAllAsync();
    Task<User?> GetByEmailAsync(string email);
    Task<IEnumerable<User>> GetActiveUsersAsync();
    Task<IEnumerable<User>> GetUsersByRoleAsync(string role);
    Task<IEnumerable<User>> SearchAsync(string keyword, int page, int pageSize);
    Task<IEnumerable<User>> GetUsersWithRecentActivityAsync(DateTime since);
    // ...and it keeps growing
}
```

Suddenly, the repository is leaking **query logic into its interface**.
Every new way of fetching users means another method, and your "abstraction" becomes a grab bag of every possible query.

Meanwhile, Entity Framework already gives you all of this through LINQ: strongly typed queries that map directly to SQL.
Instead of leveraging that power, you've introduced an indirection layer that hides query performance characteristics and often performs worse.
The repository pattern made sense when ORMs were immature.
Today, it's often just ceremony.

I've been guilty of this myself.
But part of maturing as a developer is recognizing when patterns become anti-patterns.
Repositories make sense when they encapsulate complex query logic or provide a unified API over multiple data sources.
But you should strive to keep them focused on domain logic.
As soon as they explode into a myriad of methods for every possible query, it's a sign that the abstraction has failed.

## Service Wrappers: The Good and The Ugly

Not all service wrappers are problematic. Context matters.

**✅ Good Example: External API Integration**

When integrating with external APIs, a wrapper provides genuine value by centralizing concerns:

```csharp
public interface IGitHubClient
{
    Task<UserDto?> GetUserAsync(string username);
    Task<IReadOnlyList<RepoDto>> GetRepositoriesAsync(string username);
}

public class GitHubClient(HttpClient httpClient) : IGitHubClient
{
    public Task<UserDto?> GetUserAsync(string username) =>
        httpClient.GetFromJsonAsync<UserDto>($"/users/{username}");

    public Task<IReadOnlyList<RepoDto>> GetRepositoriesAsync(string username) =>
        httpClient.GetFromJsonAsync<IReadOnlyList<RepoDto>>($"/users/{username}/repos");
}
```

This wrapper isolates GitHub's API details.
When authentication changes or endpoints evolve, you update one place.
Your business logic never needs to know about HTTP headers, base URLs, or JSON serialization.

**❌ Bad Example: Pass-Through Services**

The trouble starts when we wrap our own stable services without adding business value:

```csharp
public class UserService(IUserRepository userRepository)
{
    // Just forwarding calls with no added value
    public Task<User?> GetByIdAsync(Guid id) => userRepository.GetByIdAsync(id);
    public Task<IEnumerable<User>> GetAllAsync() => userRepository.GetAllAsync();
    public Task SaveAsync(User user) => userRepository.SaveAsync(user);
}
```

This `UserService` is pure indirection.
All it does is forward calls to the `IUserRepository`.
It doesn't enforce business rules, add validation, implement caching, or provide any real functionality.
It's a layer that exists only because "services are good architecture."

As these anemic wrappers multiply, your codebase becomes a maze.
Developers waste time navigating layers instead of focusing on where business logic actually lives.

## Making Better Decisions

Here's how to think about when abstractions are worth the investment:

### Abstract Policies, Not Mechanics

- **Policies** are decisions that might change: which payment provider to use, how to handle caching, retry strategies for external calls
- **Mechanics** are stable implementation details: EF Core's LINQ syntax, `HttpClient` configuration, JSON serialization

Abstract policies because they give you flexibility.
Don't abstract mechanics, they're already stable APIs that rarely change in breaking ways.

### Wait for the Second Implementation

If you only have one implementation, resist the interface urge.
A single implementation doesn't justify abstraction, it's premature generalization that adds complexity without benefit.

Consider this evolution:

```csharp
// Step 1: Start concrete
public class EmailNotifier
{
    public async Task SendAsync(string to, string subject, string body)
    {
        // SMTP implementation
    }
}

// Step 2: Need SMS? Now abstract
public interface INotifier
{
    Task SendAsync(string to, string subject, string body);
}

public class EmailNotifier : INotifier { /* ... */ }
public class SmsNotifier : INotifier { /* ... */ }
```

The abstraction emerges naturally when you actually need it.
The interface reveals itself through real requirements, not imaginary ones.

### Keep Implementations Inside, Abstractions at Boundaries

Inside your application, prefer **concrete types**.
Use Entity Framework directly, configure `HttpClient` as typed clients, work with domain entities.
Only introduce abstractions where your system meets the outside world: external APIs, third-party SDKs, infrastructure services.

That's where change is most likely, and where abstractions earn their keep.

## Refactoring Out Bad Abstractions

Regularly review your abstractions with this question: If I removed this abstraction, would the code become simpler or more complex?

If removing an interface or service layer would make the code clearer and more direct,
that abstraction is probably costing more than it's worth.
Don't be afraid to delete unnecessary layers.
Simpler code is often better code.

When you identify problematic abstractions, here's how to safely remove them:

1. **Identify the real consumers**. Who actually needs the abstraction?
2. **Inline the interface**. Replace abstract calls with concrete implementations.
3. **Delete the wrapper**. Remove the unnecessary indirection.
4. **Simplify the calling code**. Take advantage of the concrete API's features.

For example, replacing a repository with direct EF Core usage:

```csharp
// Before: Hidden behind repository
var users = await _userRepo.GetActiveUsersWithRecentOrders();

// After: Direct, optimized query
var users = await _context.Users
    .Where(u => u.IsActive)
    .Where(u => u.Orders.Any(o => o.CreatedAt > DateTime.Now.AddDays(-30)))
    .Include(u => u.Orders.Take(5))
    .ToListAsync();
```

The concrete version is more explicit about what data it fetches and how, making performance characteristics visible and optimization possible.
If you need the same query in multiple places, you could move it into an extension method to make it shareable.

## The Bottom Line

Abstractions are powerful tools for managing complexity and change, but they're not free.
Each one adds indirection, cognitive overhead, and maintenance burden.

The [**cleanest architecture**](/pragmatic-clean-architecture) isn't the one with the most layers.
It's the one where each layer has a clear, justified purpose.

Before adding your next abstraction, ask yourself:

- Am I abstracting a policy or just a mechanic?
- Do I have two implementations, or am I speculating about future needs?
- Will this make my system more adaptable, or just harder to follow?
- If I removed this layer, would the code become simpler?

Remember: abstractions are loans that accrue interest over time.
Make sure you're borrowing for the right reasons, not just out of habit.

The goal is to use abstractions intentionally, where they solve real problems and protect against genuine volatility.
Build abstractions that earn their keep.
Delete the ones that don't.

Thanks for reading.

And stay awesome!

---



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I wanted to see what the simplest practical AI app I could build was, and this is what I came up with.

Every week, I publish blog posts covering different topics - architecture patterns, cloud services, programming techniques, business insights.
Sometimes I write about DevOps, other times about security.
After years of writing, I realized I had no systematic way to categorize my content.
Sure, I could manually tag each post, but where's the fun in that?

So I built a simple AI-powered blog analyzer.
It fetches any blog post, extracts the content, and uses AI to automatically categorize it.
The entire thing took less than an hour to build thanks to **.NET Aspire 9.4** and it's new **GitHub Models** integration.

What surprised me wasn't just how easy it was to build, but how the integration completely removes the typical AI service complexity.
No juggling API keys in configuration files, no manual HTTP client setup, no wrestling with different SDK patterns for different AI providers.
You declare an AI model in your AppHost just like you would a database, and Aspire handles the rest.

Here's what I learned building this simple app, and how you can use the same patterns to add AI to your applications.

## What are GitHub Models?

[GitHub Models](https://docs.github.com/en/github-models) is a service that provides access to AI models from OpenAI, Microsoft, Meta, and others through a single API.
You get free tier access for prototyping (with rate limits), an interactive playground for testing prompts, and pay-per-use billing when you're ready for production.

The models range from cost-effective options like **GPT-4o-mini** to more advanced models.
Each model has different strengths - some excel at reasoning, others at code generation or creative writing.

When you combine GitHub Models with .NET Aspire's orchestration, you get:

- Automatic API key management via [external parameters](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/dotnet/aspire/fundamentals/external-parameters)
- [**Service discovery**](how-dotnet-aspire-simplifies-service-discovery) between your components
- Built-in [**health checks**](health-checks-in-asp-net-core) and [**telemetry**](introduction-to-distributed-tracing-with-opentelemetry-in-dotnet)
- Consistent configuration patterns

## Setting Up the Integration

The GitHub Models integration splits into two parts: configuring models in your `AppHost` and consuming them in your services.

### AppHost Configuration

In your AppHost project, you define AI models as resources alongside your other services:

```csharp {4,8}
var builder = DistributedApplication.CreateBuilder(args);

var blogService = builder.AddExternalService("dotnet-blog", "https://www.milanjovanovic.tech/blog");
var aiModel = builder.AddGitHubModel("ai-model", "openai/gpt-4o-mini");

builder.AddProject<Projects.GitHub_Models_Demo>("github-models-demo")
    .WithReference(blogService)
    .WithReference(aiModel);
```

Notice how the AI model sits alongside the external blog service.
Both are resources that your main application depends on.
Aspire handles the connection details - you just declare what you need.

Make sure to install the [Aspire.Hosting.GitHub.Models](https://www.nuget.org/packages/Aspire.Hosting.GitHub.Models) NuGet package to enable this integration.

To call the GitHub Models inference API you need a personal access token with the `models:read` permission.
When you call `AddGitHubModel`, Aspire automatically creates a parameter named `{resourceName}-gh-apikey` (for example, `ai-model-gh-apikey`)

You can populate the parameter through user secrets for local development:

```json
{
  "Parameters": {
    "ai-model-gh-apikey": "github_pat_YOUR_PERSONAL_ACCESS_TOKEN"
  }
}
```

If you don't provide this value from configuration, Aspire will prompt you to enter it when you run the application.
You'll have an option to store the access token securely in user secrets.

### Client Setup

In your consuming service, add the Azure AI client (which works with GitHub Models):

```csharp {2}
builder
    .AddAzureChatCompletionsClient("ai-model")
    .AddChatClient();
```

That's it.
No manual HTTP client configuration, no hardcoded endpoints.
The `ai-model` name matches what you defined in the AppHost, and Aspire wires everything together.

You'll need to install the [Aspire.Azure.AI.Inference](https://www.nuget.org/packages/Aspire.Azure.AI.Inference) NuGet package to enable this integration.
It also exposes an integration with [**MEAI**](working-with-llms-in-dotnet-using-microsoft-extensions-ai) using the `AddChatClient` method.
This simplifies the process of interacting with LLMs in your applications.

## Building the Blog Analyzer

Now let's build something useful.
We'll create a service that fetches blog posts and uses AI to categorize them.

### Fetching Blog Content

First, we need to extract readable content from blog posts:

```csharp
public async Task<string> GetBlogContentAsync(string slug)
{
    var response = await httpClient.GetAsync(slug);
    response.EnsureSuccessStatusCode();
    var htmlContent = await response.Content.ReadAsStringAsync();

    return ExtractArticleContent(htmlContent);
}
```

The `ExtractArticleContent` method (not shown) uses [HtmlAgilityPack](https://www.nuget.org/packages/htmlagilitypack/) to pull out the main article text,
stripping away navigation, ads, and other page elements.

### AI-Powered Categorization

Here's where it gets interesting.
We'll use the AI model to analyze the content and assign a category:

```csharp {3-13, 15}
public async Task<string> SummarizeBlogAsync(string blogContent)
{
    var prompt =
        @"""
        You are a blog content assistant. Summarize the following blog post
        as one of the following categories: Technology, Business, Programming,
        Architecture, DevOps, Cloud, Security, General.
        Only those eight values are allowed. Be as concise as possible.
        I want a 1-word response with one of these options: Technology, Business,
        Programming, Architecture, DevOps, Cloud, Security, General.

        The blog content is: {blogContent}
        """;

    var response = await chatClient.GetResponseAsync(prompt);

    if (!response.Messages.Any())
    {
        return "General";
    }

    var category = response.Messages.First().Text switch
    {
        var s when s.Contains("Technology", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "Technology",
        var s when s.Contains("Business", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "Business",
        var s when s.Contains("Programming", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "Programming",
        var s when s.Contains("Architecture", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "Architecture",
        var s when s.Contains("DevOps", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "DevOps",
        var s when s.Contains("Cloud", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "Cloud",
        var s when s.Contains("Security", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "Security",
        var s when s.Contains("General", StringComparison.OrdinalIgnoreCase) => "General",
        _ => "General"
    };

    return category;
}
```

A few things make this work reliably:

- The prompt is explicit about allowed categories
- We request a single-word response to avoid parsing complex output
- The switch expression handles variations in the AI's response
- There's always a fallback to "General"

### Exposing the API

Finally, we wrap everything in a simple API endpoint:

```csharp {4, 7}
app.MapPost("/summarize-blog", async (
    string slug,
    BlogService blogService,
    BlogSummarizer blogSummarizer) =>
{
    var content = await blogService.GetBlogContentAsync(slug);
    var category = await blogSummarizer.SummarizeBlogAsync(content);

    return Results.Ok(new
    {
        slug,
        category,
        content = $"{content.Substring(0, 50)}..."
    });
});
```

Call this endpoint with a blog post URL slug, and you get back the category and a preview of the content.
The dependency injection handles service resolution, and Aspire manages the AI model connection behind the scenes.

Here's an example response:

```json
{
  "slug": "screaming-architecture", // https://www.milanjovanovic.tech/blog/screaming-architecture
  "category": "Architecture",
  "content": "If you were to glance at the folder structure of y..."
}
```

Here's the distributed trace in Aspire showing the request and response flow.
You can see the request to the blog service and the AI model.

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_155/distributed_trace.png"
  width={1919}
  height={518}
  alt="Distributed trace in Aspire showing the request and response flow using GitHub Models"
/>

## Wrapping Up

The GitHub Models integration with .NET Aspire removes much of the complexity from adding AI to your applications.
You get:

- Simple configuration through the AppHost pattern
- Automatic service discovery and connection management
- Access to multiple AI models without vendor lock-in
- The same observability and deployment benefits as other Aspire resources

Whether you're [**adding AI to an existing system**](working-with-llms-in-dotnet-using-microsoft-extensions-ai) or building something new, this integration provides the foundation you need.
Start with simple categorization or summarization, then expand as you learn what works for your use case.

Thanks for reading.

And stay awesome!

---



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Bad APIs create friction for developers, increase maintenance costs, and make change risky.
Good API design doesn't mean following every "best practice" blindly.
It means choosing the right trade-offs for your context and sticking to them.

Here are 5 common mistakes I see repeatedly, why they cause problems, and how to avoid them with pragmatic, battle-tested solutions.

## 1. Inconsistent Naming and Structure

Naming is the first thing consumers see.
Inconsistency here leads to constant documentation lookups, broken expectations, and more bugs.

Look, we've all been there.
You successfully call `/users` and `/products`, so naturally you try `/orders`.
But nope, this API uses `/order-list` for some reason.
Now you're back to the docs, breaking your flow, wondering why anyone would do this.
Multiply this friction by dozens of endpoints, and you've built an API that makes developers want to flip tables.

I get it, deep URL hierarchies like `/users/{id}/habits/{habitId}/entries/{entryId}/comments/{commentId}` feel satisfying.
They mirror your beautiful domain model!
But here's the thing: you've just **hardcoded your entire data structure** into your URLs.
When business requirements change (and they will), you can't reorganize without breaking clients.

Plus, what happens when someone only has a comment ID?
They need to somehow figure out the user, habit, and entry IDs just to fetch one comment.
That's ridiculous.

Keep it simple with **plural nouns**: `/users`, `/habits`, `/entries`.
No more guessing if it's `user` or `users`.

**Only nest when something truly belongs to something else.**
User settings belong to and die with the user, so `/users/{id}/settings` makes sense.
Comments can exist independently, so `/users/{id}/posts/{postId}/comments` can be simplified.

Instead, flatten with filters:

```http
# Instead of deep nesting
GET /users/{userId}/habits/{habitId}/entries

# Use filters for flexibility
GET /entries?userId={userId}&habitId={habitId}
GET /entries?habitId={habitId}  # Now you can get entries without knowing the user
```

And please, for the love of all that is holy, wrap your arrays:

```json
{
  "data": [
    {
      "id": "e_8YH",
      "habitId": "code-review",
      "at": "2025-08-08T09:17:34Z",
      "value": 5,
      "unit": "reviews",
      "tags": ["team"]
    },
    {
      "id": "e_8Z2",
      "habitId": "deep-work",
      "at": "2025-08-07T07:00:00Z",
      "value": 2,
      "unit": "pomodoros",
      "note": "EF filters optimized"
    }
  ],
  "total": 42,
  "hasMore": true,
  "nextCursor": "cursor_01J9KaBcd"
}
```

I know it feels like pointless boilerplate now, but trust me, when you need to add pagination info six months from now,
you'll thank yourself for not having to break every client that expects a raw array.

Yeah, the [REST](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/REST) purists will complain that filters aren't "RESTful enough."
Let them.
Your API will be flexible, maintainable, and actually pleasant to use.
I'll take that over conceptual purity any day.

## 2. Poor Versioning Strategy

Everyone defaults to [**versioning**](api-versioning-in-aspnetcore) (`/v1/users`) thinking they're being smart about future changes.
Spoiler: they're not. They're creating a maintenance nightmare.

Here's what actually happens when you have v1, v2, and v3 running:

- Every bug needs to be fixed three times
- Every security patch needs three deployments
- Your docs become a choose-your-own-adventure novel
- Support has no idea which version that angry customer is using
- You spend weekends maintaining code you wrote two years ago

But the worst part?
**Versioning makes you lazy**.
Instead of thinking "how can I evolve this without breaking clients?" you just think "eh, I'll bump the version."
Now your clients have to rewrite their entire integration because you wanted to rename a field.

Watch this disaster unfold:

```
v1: GET /users returns {id, name, email}
v2: GET /users returns {id, fullName, emailAddress}  // "looks cleaner!"
v3: GET /users returns {id, firstName, lastName, email}  // "we need split names!"
```

Congrats, you're now maintaining three different response formats for the same damn data.
That v1 client?
They'll never get new features unless they rewrite everything.
Found a critical bug? Hope you enjoy patching it three times!

Here's the **radical idea**: **don't version at all**.
I'm serious.

Add fields, don't replace them:

```json
// What you ship first
{ "id": 1, "name": "John Doe" }

// What you ship later (keeping the old field)
{
  "id": 1,
  "name": "John Doe",  // Still there! Mark it deprecated in docs
  "firstName": "John",
  "lastName": "Doe"
}
```

Need optional features?
Use query parameters:

```http
GET /users/{id}?include=habits,entries
GET /users/{id}?format=detailed
```

If you absolutely must make a breaking change (and really think about this), create a new resource:

```http
# Old faithful, unchanged
GET /users/{id}

# New hotness
GET /userProfiles/{id}
```

When breaking changes are truly unavoidable, at least be a decent human about it.
Give people 6-12 months notice.
Run both versions in parallel.
Write a migration guide that doesn't suck.
And for crying out loud, monitor who's still using the old stuff so you can reach out before pulling the plug.

Yes, this means you need to actually think about your API design upfront.
You can't just YOLO field names and fix them later.
But that constraint will make you design better APIs, and future-you will buy present-you a beer.

If you want to learn more about this, I recommend reading [API Change Management](https://medium.com/good-api/api-change-management-2fe5bba32e9b).

## 3. Ignoring Pagination, Filtering, and Searching

That `GET /entries` endpoint works great with your 10 test records.
Then you launch, get actual users, and suddenly you're returning 100,000 entries in a single response.
Your API times out, your mobile users on crappy connections hate you, and your cloud bill makes you cry.

"We'll add pagination later," you said.
Well, now it's later, and adding pagination means breaking every client that expects an array.
Nice job.

Without filtering, your clients are downloading thousands of records to find the five they actually need.
It's like making someone download all of Wikipedia to read one article.
Your servers are melting, serializing data nobody wants.
Your users are burning through their data plans.
Everyone loses.

**Filtering** is for when you know exactly what you want:

```http
GET /entries?habitId=123&date=2025-08-01&status=completed
```

**Searching** is for when you kinda know what you want:

```http
GET /entries/search?q=morning+run+park
```

Don't try to be clever and combine them.
Filtering uses your database indexes efficiently.
Searching needs full-text magic.
Mix them and you'll end up with something that does neither well.

For pagination, you've got two choices, and they both kinda suck in different ways.

**Offset/limit** is what everyone starts with:

```http
GET /entries?offset=100&limit=50
             # or you can call them skip and take
             # or you can call them page and pageSize
             # use whatever you like best
```

It's dead simple and lets users jump to page 5, but here's the fun part: add or delete an item while someone's paginating, and they'll either skip entries or see duplicates.
Plus, asking for offset=10000 makes your database cry as it counts through all those rows.

[**Cursor-based pagination**](understanding-cursor-pagination-and-why-its-so-fast-deep-dive) is the "proper" solution:

```http
GET /entries?limit=50&cursor=eyJpZCI6MTIzfQ==
```

Rock solid, no skipped items, consistent performance.
But you can't jump to arbitrary pages and cursors can become invalid if underlying data changes significantly.

Yeah, implementing all this is a pain.
You need cursor encoding, parameter validation, query optimization.
But trying to add it after launch?
Wouldn't recommend.
Just build it right the first time.

## 4. Unclear or Inconsistent Error Handling

`{"error": "An error occurred"}` — if you return this, I hate you.

Seriously, when your API spits out these useless errors, here's what happens: I try random stuff hoping something works.
I add defensive code everywhere because I don't trust you.
I flood your support channel asking what's wrong.
Then I complain about your API on social media (any publicity is good publicity, eh?).

A good error tells me three things: **what broke**, **why it broke**, and **how to fix it**.
Is that so hard?

Stop inventing your own janky error format.
Use [**Problem Details**](problem-details-for-aspnetcore-apis) (RFC 9457) like a civilized developer:

```json
{
  "type": "https://api.example.com/errors/validation-failed",
  "title": "Validation Failed",
  "status": 400,
  "detail": "The request body contains invalid fields",
  "instance": "/habits/123",
  "errors": [
    {
      "field": "name",
      "reason": "Must be between 1 and 100 characters",
      "value": ""
    },
    {
      "field": "frequency",
      "reason": "Must be one of: daily, weekly, monthly",
      "value": "sometimes"
    }
  ]
}
```

See how that actually helps me fix the problem? Revolutionary, I know.

And please use the right status codes. It's not that hard:

- `400 Bad Request`: You sent garbage
- `401 Unauthorized`: Who are you?
- `403 Forbidden`: I know who you are, but no
- `404 Not Found`: That thing doesn't exist
- `409 Conflict`: That conflicts with something
- `422 Unprocessable Entity`: I understand what you want, but it's wrong\
  (_I don't use this personally, and prefer returning 400 for validation failures_)
- `429 Too Many Requests`: Slow down, cowboy
- `500 Internal Server Error`: We screwed up
- `503 Service Unavailable`: We're drowning, try again later

Now, don't go leaking your entire stack trace in production like an amateur.
Give friendly errors to users, detailed errors in dev/staging, and log the gory details server-side where you can actually use them.

## 5. Ignoring Security Until It's Too Late

"We'll add auth in phase 2" — famous last words before your API becomes a data buffet for hackers.
Ask the [Tea app](https://www.teaforwomen.com/cyberincident) how that worked out for them.

Here's what happens when you try to bolt on security later: Every client breaks when you add authentication.
That data you've been leaking? It's probably been scraped already.
Your compliance audit? Failed.
That one security incident? Your users will bring it up for years.

**Authentication** (who are you?) and **Authorization** (what can you do?) are different things.
I've seen so many APIs that check if you're logged in but never check if you should actually access that data.
Don't be that person.

[**Rate limiting**](advanced-rate-limiting-use-cases-in-dotnet) isn't just about stopping abuse, it's about fairness.
Start simple: 1000 requests per hour per API key.
When they hit the limit, return `429` with headers showing when they can try again.
Then get fancy: different limits for different endpoints, higher limits for paying customers,
lower limits for that one client who keeps doing weird stuff.

**HTTPS everywhere**.
Yes, even for your internal "no one will ever find this" API.
It's 2025, not 2005.
[Let's Encrypt](https://letsencrypt.org/) is free.
You have no excuse.

Look, security makes things slower and more complex.
Auth checks on every request, encryption overhead, state management for rate limiting, it all adds up.
But you know what's worse?
Explaining to your users why their data is being sold on the dark web.
Build security in from the start, or prepare for a world of pain.

## Final Thoughts

Good API design isn't about perfection, it's about making intentional, informed decisions.
Every choice is a tradeoff.
Consistency might limit flexibility.
Security will impact performance.
Stability means slower innovation.

Here's what actually matters: **know your tradeoffs and own them**.
Document why you made these choices (future you will thank you).
Stay consistent even when it's tempting not to.
Design for evolution, not some imaginary perfect future.
And listen to your users, but don't turn your API into a frankenstein monster trying to please everyone.

**Your API is a promise to other developers**.
Every time you break that promise (with a breaking change, an inconsistent pattern, or a useless error message) you lose their trust.
And trust me, developers hold grudges.

Build the API you'd want to use.
Your developers will thank you, your support team will thank you, and honestly, you'll thank yourself six months from now when you have to maintain this thing.

Want to dive deeper? Check out my [**Pragmatic REST APIs**](/pragmatic-rest-apis) course where I cover all of this (and more).

P.S. Any sharp language here is just me being snarky for emphasis.
I'm critiquing patterns, not people.
Don't take the strong wording too seriously.

---



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[**Modular monoliths**](what-is-a-modular-monolith) promise the productivity of a monolith and the clear boundaries of microservices.
They work because each module is self-contained: its domain model, behavior and data live behind a boundary.
But one of the hardest places to maintain those boundaries is in the database.

Nothing stops a developer from running a rogue `JOIN` across tables or bypassing a public API.

In previous articles, I described [**four levels of data isolation**](modular-monolith-data-isolation) (table, schema, database and alternative persistence)
and argued that [**modules should expose explicit APIs**](internal-vs-public-apis-in-modular-monoliths) to access their data.

This article goes deeper on the database side.
You'll learn how to carve out logical and physical boundaries using PostgreSQL schemas and roles and EF Core,
why those choices matter, and how to handle cross-cutting queries without breaking encapsulation.

## Why enforce database boundaries?

In a modular monolith each module **owns its data**.
If Module A reaches into Module B's tables, you lose this constraint and your modules become tightly coupled.
Instead, B exposes a public API and hides its persistence logic from consumers.

Beyond clean code, enforcing boundaries at the database level protects you against mistakes
and makes it easier to extract a module into its own service later.

Database schemas act like folders: they let you organise objects and share a database among many users,
but a user can access any schema only if they have privileges.
This means we can deliberately lock each module to its own schema.

**The strategy**

- Create a schema per module and a dedicated database role.
- Grant that role privileges only on its schema and set its default search path.
- Use EF with one `DbContext` per module, setting a default schema and connection string per module.
- For cross-cutting queries, publish a read-only database view that acts like a public API.
- _Optional_: Use row-level security policies to restrict access within a table.

These practices give us **enforceable boundaries** while keeping the **operational overhead low**.

## Schemas, roles and search paths

PostgreSQL lets you create multiple schemas within a single database.
A module can define its own schema and a role that owns it.
The role only has usage and table-level privileges on that schema.
For example, for an orders module:

```sql
-- create a user for the module and its schema
CREATE ROLE orders_role LOGIN PASSWORD 'orders_secret';
CREATE SCHEMA orders AUTHORIZATION orders_role;
GRANT USAGE ON SCHEMA orders TO orders_role;
GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA orders TO orders_role;
ALTER ROLE orders_role SET search_path = orders;
```

The `ALTER ROLE` command sets the role's default search path so unqualified names resolve to the module's schema.
If you don't want to rely on the search path, always qualify table names (`orders.table_name`).

Row-level security (RLS) allows you to filter rows based on a policy expression.
You enable RLS on a table and define a policy referencing `current_user` or columns:

RLS is powerful for multi-tenant scenarios or sensitive data, but it adds complexity.
Start with schemas and roles and add RLS only when necessary.

## Configuring EF schemas and multiple DbContexts

I assume readers are comfortable with EF Core, so we'll skip the basics and focus on what matters for modular monoliths:

- Use [**one DbContext per module**](using-multiple-ef-core-dbcontext-in-single-application).
  Each context contains only the entities of its module, and you call `modelBuilder.HasDefaultSchema("orders")` in `OnModelCreating`
  to map entities to the correct schema.
  Setting a default schema also affects sequences and migrations.
- Provide a connection string per module using the module's role.
  Even if modules share the same database, separate credentials ensure that a misconfigured context cannot access another schema.
- Configure the migrations history table in each context using `MigrationsHistoryTable("__EFMigrationsHistory", "orders")`
  so that EF's migration metadata stays within the module's schema.

These settings ensure EF Core queries and migrations respect the boundaries established by the database.

## Step-by-step: Enforcing module boundaries

Suppose we have two modules (**Orders** and **Shipping**) and we want to enforce boundaries between them.
Here's what we need to do:

1. **Create schemas and roles**.
   Use SQL to create orders and shipping schemas and their corresponding roles (`orders_role`, `shipping_role`).
   Grant each role privileges only on its schema.

   ```sql
   -- Orders schema and role
   CREATE ROLE orders_role LOGIN PASSWORD 'orders_secret';
   CREATE SCHEMA orders AUTHORIZATION orders_role;
   GRANT USAGE ON SCHEMA orders TO orders_role;
   GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA orders TO orders_role;
   ALTER ROLE orders_role SET search_path = orders;

    -- Shipping schema and role
    CREATE ROLE shipping_role LOGIN PASSWORD 'shipping_secret';
    CREATE SCHEMA shipping AUTHORIZATION shipping_role;
    GRANT USAGE ON SCHEMA shipping TO shipping_role;
    GRANT SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE ON ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA shipping TO shipping_role;
    ALTER ROLE shipping_role SET search_path = shipping;
   ```

2. **Add connection strings**. In configuration, define separate connection strings per module:

   ```json
   {
     "ConnectionStrings": {
       "Orders": "Host=localhost;Database=appdb;Username=orders_role;Password=orders_secret",
       "Shipping": "Host=localhost;Database=appdb;Username=shipping_role;Password=shipping_secret"
     }
   }
   ```

3. **Define DbContexts**. Each module defines its own context and sets the default schema. For the Orders module:

   ```csharp
   public class OrdersDbContext : DbContext
   {
       public DbSet<Order> Orders { get; set; } = default!;
       public DbSet<OrderLine> OrderLines { get; set; } = default!;

       public OrdersDbContext(DbContextOptions<OrdersDbContext> options) : base(options) { }

       protected override void OnModelCreating(ModelBuilder modelBuilder)
       {
           // set default schema for all entities in this context
           modelBuilder.HasDefaultSchema("orders");
           // optional: configure tables explicitly
           modelBuilder.Entity<Order>().ToTable("orders");
           modelBuilder.Entity<OrderLine>().ToTable("order_lines");
           base.OnModelCreating(modelBuilder);
       }
   }
   ```

   Register each context with its connection string and specify the migrations history table:

   ```csharp
   builder.Services.AddDbContext<OrdersDbContext>(options =>
       options.UseNpgsql(builder.Configuration.GetConnectionString("Orders"),
           o => o.MigrationsHistoryTable("__EFMigrationsHistory", "orders")));

   builder.Services.AddDbContext<ShippingDbContext>(options =>
       options.UseNpgsql(builder.Configuration.GetConnectionString("Shipping"),
           o => o.MigrationsHistoryTable("__EFMigrationsHistory", "shipping")));
   ```

4. **Maintain migrations separately**.
   Because each module has its own context and schema, you maintain migrations separately.
   When generating a migration, specify the context:

   ```bash
   dotnet ef migrations add InitialOrders --context OrdersDbContext --output-dir Data/Migrations/Orders
   ```

   Repeat this for the Shipping context.
   EF Core will generate migration classes that create tables within the specified schema (because of `HasDefaultSchema`).
   Remember to apply the migrations in the correct order when deploying. You can automate this by having a migration runner iterate through the contexts.

With schemas, roles and multiple contexts in place, the data boundary becomes enforceable at the database level:

- The **Orders** module's `DbContext` knows only about the orders schema and uses credentials that have no privileges on the **Shipping** schema.
- The **Shipping** module cannot query `orders.orders` directly because its role lacks the necessary privileges.
- Cross-module communication must go through the module's public API (or an asynchronous event).
  This explicit coupling makes dependencies obvious and maintainable.

## Cross-cutting queries

Even in a modular system you occasionally need a screen that spans multiple modules,
such as an **Order History** page that shows order and shipping data.
Resist the temptation to `JOIN` across schemas.
Two approaches can help:

- **Dedicated read model**.
  One module owns a view model and subscribes to events from others.
  This pattern works well when modules might be extracted later.

- **Database views with privileges**.
  Since our modules share a database, we can create a read-only view in the public schema that joins the relevant tables.
  We grant `SELECT` on the view to a special role or module.
  This view acts like a controlled public API.
  Consumers query the view but cannot access the underlying tables directly.
  The trade-off is similar to calling a synchronous API: if you later split the database, the view will have to be replaced with a service call.

For example:

```sql
CREATE VIEW public.order_summary AS
SELECT o.id, o.total, s.status
FROM orders.orders o
JOIN shipping.shipments s ON s.order_id = o.id;

-- grant read access to a reporting role
GRANT SELECT ON public.order_summary TO reporting_role;
```

This approach lets you build dashboards or admin screens without breaking boundaries.

## Conclusion

By giving each module its own schema, role and DbContext, and by controlling cross-module access via views or APIs,
you **ensure that boundaries in your modular monolith are enforceable** rather than aspirational.
This discipline makes it easier to evolve your system and paves the way for a future microservice extraction.

If you found this article valuable, check out my previous posts on modular monoliths:

- [What Is a Modular Monolith?](what-is-a-modular-monolith)
- [Modular Monolith Data Isolation](modular-monolith-data-isolation)
- [Internal vs Public APIs in Modular Monoliths](internal-vs-public-apis-in-modular-monoliths)

If you want a structured, hands-on approach to building modular systems, from defining boundaries to extracting services,
check out my [**Modular Monolith Architecture**](/modular-monolith-architecture) course.
Join more than 2,100+ students who have mastered modular monoliths with it.
The course walks through these patterns in depth and shows how to apply them in a real codebase.

Thanks for reading.

And stay awesome!

---



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Entity Framework Core's global query filters have long been a convenient way to apply common conditions to all queries on an entity.
They're especially handy in scenarios like [**soft deletion**](implementing-soft-delete-with-ef-core)
and [**multi-tenancy**](multi-tenant-applications-with-ef-core),
where you want the same `WHERE` clause added automatically to every query.

Previous versions of EF Core, however, suffered from **one big limitation**: each entity type could only have one filter defined.
If you needed to combine multiple conditions (for example, soft-delete and tenant isolation)
you either had to write explicit `&&` expressions or manually disable and reapply filters in specific queries.

With EF 10, that changes.
The new **named query filters** feature lets you attach multiple filters to a single entity and reference them by name.
You can then disable individual filters as needed, rather than turning off all filters at once.

Let's explore this new capability, why it matters, and some practical ways to use it.

## What Are Query Filters?

If you've used EF Core for a while, you may already be familiar with
[global query filters](https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/ef/core/querying/filters).
A query filter is a condition that EF automatically applies to all queries for a particular entity type.
Under the hood, EF adds a `WHERE` clause whenever that entity is queried. Typical uses include:

- **Soft deletion**: filtering out rows where IsDeleted is true so that deleted records don't show up in queries by default
- **Multi-tenancy**: filtering by a TenantId so that each tenant only sees its own data

For example, a soft-delete filter might be configured like this:

```csharp
modelBuilder.Entity<Order>()
    .HasQueryFilter(order => !order.IsDeleted);
```

With the filter in place, every query on `Orders` automatically excludes soft-deleted records.
To include deleted data (say, for an admin report), you can call `IgnoreQueryFilters()` on the query.
The downside is that all filters on that entity are disabled,
which opens the door to accidentally leaking data you don't intend to show.

## Using Multiple Query Filters

Until now, EF permitted only one query filter per entity.
If you called `HasQueryFilter` twice on the same entity, the second call overwrote the first.
To combine filters you had to write a single expression with `&&`:

```csharp
modelBuilder.Entity<Order>()
    .HasQueryFilter(order => !order.IsDeleted && order.TenantId == tenantId);
```

This works but makes it impossible to selectively disable one condition.
`IgnoreQueryFilters()` disables both, forcing you to manually re-apply whichever filter you still need.
EF 10 introduces a better alternative: **named query filters**.

To attach multiple filters to an entity, call `HasQueryFilter` with a name for each filter:

```csharp
modelBuilder.Entity<Order>()
    .HasQueryFilter("SoftDeletionFilter", order => !order.IsDeleted)
    .HasQueryFilter("TenantFilter", order => order.TenantId == tenantId);
```

Under the hood, EF creates separate filters identified by the names you provide.
You can now turn off just the soft-delete filter while keeping the tenant filter in place:

```csharp
// Returns all orders (including soft‑deleted) for the current tenant
var allOrders = await context.Orders.IgnoreQueryFilters(["SoftDeletionFilter"]).ToListAsync();
```

If you omit the parameter array, `IgnoreQueryFilters()` disables all filters for the entity.

## Tip: Using Constants for Filter Names

Named filters use string keys.
Hard-coding those names throughout your codebase makes it easy to introduce typos and brittle magic strings.
To avoid this, define constants or enums for your filter names and reuse them wherever needed.
For example:

```csharp
public static class OrderFilters
{
    public const string SoftDelete = nameof(SoftDelete);
    public const string Tenant = nameof(Tenant);
}

modelBuilder.Entity<Order>()
    .HasQueryFilter(OrderFilters.SoftDelete, order => !order.IsDeleted)
    .HasQueryFilter(OrderFilters.Tenant, order => order.TenantId == tenantId);

// Later in your query
var allOrders = await context.Orders.IgnoreQueryFilters([OrderFilters.SoftDelete]).ToListAsync();
```

Having the filter names defined in a single place reduces duplication and improves maintainability.
Another best practice is to wrap the ignore call in an extension method or repository
so that consumers don't directly interact with filter names at all. For example:

```csharp
public static IQueryable<Order> IncludeSoftDeleted(this IQueryable<Order> query)
    => query.IgnoreQueryFilters([OrderFilters.SoftDelete]);
```

This makes your intent explicit and centralizes the filter logic in one place.

## Wrapping Up

The introduction of **named query filters** in EF 10 removes one of the longstanding limitations
of EF's [**global query filters**](how-to-use-global-query-filters-in-ef-core) feature.
You can now:

- Attach multiple filters to a single entity and manage them individually
- Selectively disable specific filters in a LINQ query using `IgnoreQueryFilters(["FilterName"])`
- Simplify common patterns like [**soft deletion**](implementing-soft-delete-with-ef-core) plus
  [**multi-tenancy**](multi-tenant-applications-with-ef-core) without resorting to complicated conditional logic

Named query filters can become a powerful tool to keep your queries clean and your domain logic encapsulated.

Whether you're building SaaS applications that isolate tenant data or
ensuring that deleted records stay hidden until you explicitly need them,
EF 10's named query filters offer the flexibility you've been waiting for.

Give them a try in the preview and start thinking about how they can simplify your codebase.

That's all for today.

See you next week.

---


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Sooner or later, every .NET developer needs to generate PDF reports.
And generating polished PDF reports in .NET doesn't have to be painful.
Let me explain how.

My go-to method?

**HTML to PDF conversion**.
It's:

- Simple to implement
- Very flexible
- Ideal for stylized reports

But many popular libraries require a commercial license.
This post walks you through a completely free approach using:

- **Handlebars.NET** for templating
- **PuppeteerSharp** for headless rendering

This gives you full control over layout, styling, and content.
It's perfect for invoices, dashboards, and exports.

We'll start from scratch and build up to a complex, dynamic invoice report with full styling, images, and even headers and footers.

## Why HTML + Headless Browser?

**Pros:**

- Rich styling with CSS
- Easy to preview/debug in browser
- Supports charts/images via JS/CSS
- Full control over layout (media queries, page breaks, etc.)

**Cons:**

- Requires bundling a browser (e.g. Chromium)
- Slower than native PDF libraries
- Slightly more setup complexity

## Setting Up the Project

We'll start by installing the NuGet packages we need for Handlebars and PuppeteerSharp:

```powershell
Install-Package Handlebars.Net
Install-Package PuppeteerSharp
```

Next, we'll create our first template.
It's a simple HTML document with some Handlebars placeholders.
You'll notice them with the `{{variable}}` syntax.
These placeholders will be replaced with actual data when rendering the template.

```html


<html lang="en">
  <head>
    <style>
      body {
        font-family: Arial;
      }
    </style>
  </head>
  <body>
    <h1>Invoice #{{Number}}</h1>

    <p>Date: {{formatDate IssuedDate}}</p>

    <h2>From:</h2>
    <p>{{SellerAddress.CompanyName}}</p>
    <p>{{SellerAddress.Email}}</p>

    <h2>To:</h2>
    <p>{{CustomerAddress.CompanyName}}</p>
    <p>{{CustomerAddress.Email}}</p>

    <h2>Items:</h2>
    <table>
      <tr>
        <th>Name</th>
        <th>Price</th>
      </tr>
      {{#each LineItems}}
      <tr>
        <td>{{Name}}</td>
        <td>{{formatCurrency Price}}</td>
      </tr>
      {{/each}}
    </table>

    <p><strong>Total: {{formatCurrency Total}}</strong></p>
  </body>
</html>
```

The function calls, like `{{formatDate IssuedDate}}`, are custom helpers we can define in Handlebars.
You register them like this:

```csharp
Handlebars.RegisterHelper("formatDate", (context, arguments) =>
{
    if (arguments[0] is DateOnly date)
    {
        return date.ToString("dd/MM/yyyy");
    }
    return arguments[0]?.ToString() ?? "";
});
```

This allows us to format dates, currencies, or any other data type as needed.
You register these helpers before compiling the template, once per application start is enough.

## Rendering the Template and PDF

How do we render this template and convert it to PDF?
We'll use [Handlebars.NET](https://github.com/Handlebars-Net/Handlebars.Net) to compile the template with data, then PuppeteerSharp to render it to PDF.

First, we read the template file and compile it with `Handlebars`:

```csharp {10,12}
var template = File.ReadAllText("Templates/InvoiceTemplate.html");
var data = new {
    customer = "Milan Jovanović",
    items = new[] {
        new { description = "Software License", price = 99 },
        new { description = "Support Plan", price = 49 }
    }
};

var compiledTemplate = Handlebars.Compile(template);

string html = compiledTemplate(data);
```

This gives us the final HTML with all placeholders replaced by actual data.

**Note**: You don't necessarily need to use Handlebars.
You can use any templating engine that suits your needs,
like [**Razor**](flexible-pdf-reporting-in-net-using-razor-views) or [Scriban](https://github.com/scriban/scriban).

Next, we need to convert this HTML to PDF using PuppeteerSharp.
We'll launch a headless browser, set the content to our HTML, and then generate the PDF.
Here's how we do it:

```csharp
// Ensure PuppeteerSharp has the browser binaries
var browserFetcher = new BrowserFetcher();
await browserFetcher.DownloadAsync(BrowserFetcher.DefaultChromiumRevision);

// Launch the browser and create a new page
using var browser = await Puppeteer.LaunchAsync(new LaunchOptions { Headless = true });
using var page = await browser.NewPageAsync();

// Set the content of the page to our compiled HTML
await page.SetContentAsync(html);

// Optional: wait for fonts to load if using custom fonts
await page.EvaluateExpressionHandleAsync("document.fonts.ready");

byte[] pdf = await page.PdfDataAsync(new PdfOptions {
    Format = PaperFormat.A4,
    PrintBackground = true,
    MarginOptions = new MarginOptions
    {
        Top = "50px",
        Right = "20px",
        Bottom = "50px",
        Left = "20px"
    }
});
```

This gives us a byte array containing the PDF data.
You can then save it to a file or return it from an API endpoint.

Here's a simple example of returning it from a Minimal API endpoint:

```csharp
return Results.File(pdf, "application/pdf", "invoice.pdf");
```

Here's what the document looks like when rendered:

<figure className="figure-center">
  <div className="bordered">
    <Image
      src="blogs/mnw_151/simple_template.png"
      width={1656}
      height={2342}
      alt="Simple PDF Template example rendered as PDF"
    />
  </div>
  <figcaption>
    This is a simple PDF template example with dynamic templated content.
  </figcaption>
</figure>

## Enhancements: Images, Header/Footer, Styling

What are some improvements we can make to this basic setup?

For example, you can add images to your template using the `<img>` tag.
A simple approach is to use a base64-encoded image directly in the HTML.
Note that we're passing the image data using the `LogoBase64` variable.

```html {2}
<img
  src="data:image/png;base64,{{LogoBase64}}"
  alt="Logo"
  style="height:50px; max-width:200px; object-fit:contain;"
/>
```

We can also render dynamic headers and footers using PuppeteerSharp's built-in support.
You can define these in the `PdfOptions` object when generating the PDF.
Here's an example:

```csharp {3,10,17}
var pdfOptions = new PdfOptions
{
    HeaderTemplate =
        @"""
        <div style='font-size: 14px; text-align: center; padding: 10px;'>
            <span style='margin-right: 20px;'><span class='title'></span></span>
            <span><span class='date'></span></span>
        </div>
        """,
    FooterTemplate =
        @"""
        <div style='font-size: 14px; text-align: center; padding: 10px;'>
            <span style='margin-right: 20px;'>Generated on <span class='date'></span></span>
            <span>Page <span class='pageNumber'></span> of <span class='totalPages'></span></span>
        </div>
        """,
    DisplayHeaderFooter = true
};
```

PuppeteerSharp uses CSS classes like `title`, `date`, `pageNumber`, and `totalPages` to inject dynamic values.
This could be different for some other libraries, so check the documentation.

Lastly, I want to mention that you can use CSS for advanced styling.
This can be inline in the HTML or in a separate CSS file.
You can also reference external stylesheets if needed, using the `<link>` tag.

Here's a complete example of a more complex template with images, headers, and footers:

```html
<html lang="en">
  <head>
    <meta charset="UTF-8" />
    <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" />
    <title>Invoice #{{Number}}</title>
    <style>
      /* Omitted for brevity */
    </style>
  </head>
  <body>
    <div class="invoice-container">
      
      <div
        style="display: flex; justify-content: space-between; align-items: flex-start;"
      >
        <div>
          <h1 class="invoice-title">Invoice #{{Number}}</h1>
          <div class="invoice-dates">
            <p><strong>Issued:</strong> {{formatDate IssuedDate}}</p>
            <p><strong>Due:</strong> {{formatDate DueDate}}</p>
          </div>
        </div>
        <div>
          {{#if LogoBase64}}
          <img
            src="data:image/png;base64,{{LogoBase64}}"
            alt="Logo"
            style="height:50px; max-width:200px; object-fit:contain;"
          />
          {{/if}}
        </div>
      </div>
      <hr
        style="margin: 20px 0; border: none; border-top: 1px solid #e9ecef;"
      />

      
      <div class="addresses">
        
        <div class="address-box">
          <h3 class="address-title">From:</h3>
          <div class="address-content">
            <p class="company-name">{{SellerAddress.CompanyName}}</p>
            <p>{{SellerAddress.Street}}</p>
            <p>{{SellerAddress.City}}, {{SellerAddress.State}}</p>
            <p class="email">{{SellerAddress.Email}}</p>
          </div>
        </div>

        
        <div class="address-box">
          <h3 class="address-title">Bill To:</h3>
          <div class="address-content">
            <p class="company-name">{{CustomerAddress.CompanyName}}</p>
            <p>{{CustomerAddress.Street}}</p>
            <p>{{CustomerAddress.City}}, {{CustomerAddress.State}}</p>
            <p class="email">{{CustomerAddress.Email}}</p>
          </div>
        </div>
      </div>

      
      <div class="items-section">
        <h2 class="items-title">Items</h2>
        <table class="items-table">
          <thead>
            <tr>
              <th>#</th>
              <th>Description</th>
              <th>Price</th>
              <th>Qty</th>
              <th>Total</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody>
            {{#each LineItems}}
            <tr>
              <td>{{@index}}</td>
              <td>{{Name}}</td>
              <td>{{formatCurrency Price}}</td>
              <td>{{formatNumber Quantity}}</td>
              <td>{{formatCurrency (multiply Price Quantity)}}</td>
            </tr>
            {{/each}}
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </div>

      
      <div class="totals">
        <div class="totals-container">
          <div class="totals-row subtotal">
            <span>Subtotal:</span>
            <span>{{formatCurrency Subtotal}}</span>
          </div>
          <div class="totals-row">
            <span>Tax:</span>
            <span>{{formatCurrency 0}}</span>
          </div>
          <div class="totals-row total">
            <span>Total:</span>
            <span>{{formatCurrency Total}}</span>
          </div>
        </div>
      </div>
    </div>
  </body>
</html>
```

And the rendered PDF looks like this:

<figure className="figure-center">
  <div className="bordered">
    <Image
      src="blogs/mnw_151/complex_template.png"
      width={1656}
      height={2342}
      alt="Complex PDF Template example rendered as PDF with images, headers, and footers"
    />
  </div>
  <figcaption>
    This is a complex PDF template example with CSS stylization, tables, images,
    headers, and footers.
  </figcaption>
</figure>

## Downloading Binaries at Application Start

Here's a small tip: PuppeteerSharp requires the Chromium browser binaries to be downloaded at runtime.
You can do this by calling `BrowserFetcher.DownloadAsync()` before launching the browser.
This ensures the required browser version is available when you run your application.

A simple way to do this is to add it to your application startup code or a background service:

```csharp
public class BrowserSetupService : BackgroundService
{
    protected override async Task ExecuteAsync(CancellationToken stoppingToken)
    {
        var browserFetcher = new BrowserFetcher();
        await browserFetcher.DownloadAsync();
    }
}
```

Then register this service in your `Program.cs`:

```csharp
builder.Services.AddHostedService<BrowserSetupService>();
```

## Performance Considerations

Let's talk about performance.
How fast is this approach and can you use it at scale?

The first thing to consider is the use a headless browser like Chromium.
This can be slower than native PDF libraries, especially for large documents or high concurrency.
It also adds **overhead at runtime** since the browser binaries need to be **downloaded** and **launched**.

You should definitely consider moving this out of your main application.
You can use a background service or a separate microservice to handle PDF generation.
Event a cloud function can be a good fit if you need to scale.

But as with anything performance-related, it depends on your specific use case.
So measure and profile your application to see if this approach meets your needs.

Here are some benchmarks I ran on a sample invoice template.
It's nothing scientific, but it gives you an idea of the performance.
I didn't test this with concurrent requests, but rather just the time it takes to generate a single PDF.

**Cold Start**: ~12s spent downloading + launching Chromium

**Warm Run**: ~580ms

- Template + HTML generation: ~13ms
- Browser reuse + rendering: ~550ms

## Summary

HTML + PuppeteerSharp is one of the most pragmatic approaches for PDF reporting in .NET.

It lets you:

- Design pixel-perfect layouts using familiar web technologies
- Inject dynamic data cleanly with Handlebars.NET
- Output high-quality PDFs with full styling, tables, and images

And all of this without relying on commercial libraries.

I've also written about [**PDF generation**](how-to-easily-create-pdf-documents-in-aspnetcore) in the past,
with libraries like [QuestPdf](https://www.questpdf.com/) or [IronPdf](https://ironpdf.com/).
You can take a look at those if you want to compare approaches.

The cold start can be expensive, but once warmed up, rendering is fast and reliable.
You get total layout control, CSS styling, and even dynamic headers and footers with page numbers and timestamps.

If you're building internal dashboards, invoice generators, or export endpoints, this approach delivers excellent value.

If you need pixel-perfect PDF reports in .NET and want full design control,
combining Handlebars.NET with PuppeteerSharp is a powerful approach.

You'll trade some performance and setup cost for flexibility, but for most internal tools, dashboards, or customer-facing reports, it's worth it.

---


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Let's talk about something we all deal with but often put off until the last minute - error handling in our ASP.NET Core apps.

When something breaks in production, the last thing you want is a cryptic 500 error with zero context.
Proper error handling isn't just about logging exceptions.
It's about making sure your app fails gracefully and gives useful info to the caller (and you).

In this article, I'll walk through the main options for global error handling in ASP.NET Core.

We'll look at how I used to do it, what ASP.NET Core 9 offers now, and where each approach makes sense.

## Middleware-Based Error Handling

The classic way to catch unhandled exceptions is with custom [**middleware**](3-ways-to-create-middleware-in-asp-net-core).
This is where most of us start, and honestly, it still works great for most scenarios.

```csharp
internal sealed class GlobalExceptionHandlerMiddleware(
    RequestDelegate next,
    ILogger<GlobalExceptionHandlerMiddleware> logger)
{
    public async Task InvokeAsync(HttpContext context)
    {
        try
        {
            await next(context);
        }
        catch (Exception ex)
        {
            logger.LogError(ex, "Unhandled exception occurred");

            // Make sure to set the status code before writing to the response body
            context.Response.StatusCode = ex switch
            {
                ApplicationException => StatusCodes.Status400BadRequest,
                _ => StatusCodes.Status500InternalServerError
            };

            await context.Response.WriteAsJsonAsync(
                new ProblemDetails
                {
                    Type = ex.GetType().Name,
                    Title = "An error occured",
                    Detail = ex.Message
                });
        }
    }
}
```

Don't forget to add the middleware to the request pipeline:

```csharp
app.UseMiddleware<GlobalExceptionHandlerMiddleware>();
```

This approach is solid and works everywhere in your pipeline.
The beauty is its simplicity: wrap everything in a try-catch, log the error, and return a consistent response.

But once you start adding specific rules for different exception types (e.g. `ValidationException`, `NotFoundException`), this becomes a mess.
You end up with long `if` / `else` chains or more abstractions to handle each exception type.

Plus, you're manually crafting JSON responses, which means you're probably not following
[RFC 9457 (Problem Details)](https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9457) standards.

## Enter IProblemDetailsService

Microsoft recognized this pain point and gave us `IProblemDetailsService` to standardize error responses.
Instead of manually serializing our own error objects, we can use the built-in Problem Details format.

```csharp {3,23-33}
internal sealed class GlobalExceptionHandlerMiddleware(
    RequestDelegate next,
    IProblemDetailsService problemDetailsService,
    ILogger<GlobalExceptionHandlerMiddleware> logger)
{
    public async Task InvokeAsync(HttpContext context)
    {
        try
        {
            await next(context);
        }
        catch (Exception ex)
        {
            logger.LogError(ex, "Unhandled exception occurred");

            // Make sure to set the status code before writing to the response body
            context.Response.StatusCode = ex switch
            {
                ApplicationException => StatusCodes.Status400BadRequest,
                _ => StatusCodes.Status500InternalServerError
            };

            await problemDetailsService.TryWriteAsync(new ProblemDetailsContext
            {
                HttpContext = httpContext,
                Exception = exception,
                ProblemDetails = new ProblemDetails
                {
                    Type = exception.GetType().Name,
                    Title = "An error occured",
                    Detail = exception.Message
                }
            });
        }
    }
}
```

This is much cleaner.
We're now using a standard format that API consumers expect, and we're not manually fiddling with JSON serialization.
But we're still stuck with that growing switch statement problem.
[**You can learn more about using Problem Details in .NET here**](problem-details-for-aspnetcore-apis).

## The Modern Way: IExceptionHandler

ASP.NET Core 8 introduced `IExceptionHandler`, and it's a game-changer.
Instead of one massive middleware handling everything, we can create focused handlers for specific exception types.

Here's how it works:

```csharp
internal sealed class GlobalExceptionHandler(
    IProblemDetailsService problemDetailsService,
    ILogger<GlobalExceptionHandler> logger) : IExceptionHandler
{
    public async ValueTask<bool> TryHandleAsync(
        HttpContext httpContext,
        Exception exception,
        CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        logger.LogError(exception, "Unhandled exception occurred");

        httpContext.Response.StatusCode = exception switch
        {
            ApplicationException => StatusCodes.Status400BadRequest,
            _ => StatusCodes.Status500InternalServerError
        };

        return await problemDetailsService.TryWriteAsync(new ProblemDetailsContext
        {
            HttpContext = httpContext,
            Exception = exception,
            ProblemDetails = new ProblemDetails
            {
                Type = exception.GetType().Name,
                Title = "An error occured",
                Detail = exception.Message
            }
        });
    }
}
```

The key here is the return value.
If your handler can deal with the exception, return `true`.
If not, return `false` and let the next handler try.

Don't forget to register it with DI and the request pipeline:

```csharp
builder.Services.AddExceptionHandler<GlobalExceptionHandler>();
builder.Services.AddProblemDetails();

// And in your pipeline
app.UseExceptionHandler();
```

This approach is so much cleaner.
Each handler has one job, and the code is easy to test and maintain.

## Chaining Exception Handlers

You can chain multiple [**exception handlers**](global-error-handling-in-aspnetcore-8) together, and they'll run in the order you register them.
ASP.NET Core will use the first one that returns `true` from `TryHandleAsync`.

Example: One for validation errors, one global fallback.

```csharp
builder.Services.AddExceptionHandler<ValidationExceptionHandler>();
builder.Services.AddExceptionHandler<GlobalExceptionHandler>();
```

Let's say you're using [FluentValidation](https://fluentvalidation.net/) (and you should be).
Here's a complete setup:

```csharp
internal sealed class ValidationExceptionHandler(
    IProblemDetailsService problemDetailsService,
    ILogger<ValidationExceptionHandler> logger) : IExceptionHandler
{
    public async ValueTask<bool> TryHandleAsync(
        HttpContext httpContext,
        Exception exception,
        CancellationToken cancellationToken)
    {
        if (exception is not ValidationException validationException)
        {
            return false;
        }

        logger.LogError(exception, "Unhandled exception occurred");

        httpContext.Response.StatusCode = StatusCodes.Status400BadRequest;
        var context = new ProblemDetailsContext
        {
            HttpContext = httpContext,
            Exception = exception,
            ProblemDetails = new ProblemDetails
            {
                Detail = "One or more validation errors occurred",
                Status = StatusCodes.Status400BadRequest
            }
        };

        var errors = validationException.Errors
            .GroupBy(e => e.PropertyName)
            .ToDictionary(
                g => g.Key.ToLowerInvariant(),
                g => g.Select(e => e.ErrorMessage).ToArray()
            );
        context.ProblemDetails.Extensions.Add("errors", errors);

        return await problemDetailsService.TryWriteAsync(context);
    }
}
```

And in your app, just throw like this:

```csharp
// In your controller or service - IValidator<CreateUserRequest>
public async Task<IActionResult> CreateUser(CreateUserRequest request)
{
    await _validator.ValidateAndThrowAsync(request);

    // Your business logic here
}
```

The execution order is important.
The framework will try each handler in the order you registered them.
So put your most specific handlers first, and your catch-all handler last.

## Summary

We've come a long way from the days of manually crafting error responses in middleware.
The evolution looks like this:

- [**Middleware**](3-ways-to-create-middleware-in-asp-net-core): Simple, works everywhere, but gets complex fast
- [**IProblemDetailsService**](problem-details-for-aspnetcore-apis): Standardizes response format, still manageable
- [**IExceptionHandler**](global-error-handling-in-aspnetcore-8): Modern, testable, and scales beautifully

For new projects, I'd go straight to `IExceptionHandler`.
It's cleaner, more maintainable, and gives you the flexibility to handle different exception types exactly how you want.

The key takeaway?
Don't let error handling be an afterthought.
Set it up early, make it consistent, and your users (and your future self) will thank you when things inevitably go wrong.

Thanks for reading.

And stay awesome!

---



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[**.NET Aspire**](dotnet-aspire-a-game-changer-for-cloud-native-development) is one of the most exciting additions to the .NET ecosystem in years.

It brings a fresh, modern approach to building cloud-native apps, with a focus on developer productivity,
great defaults, and tight integration across your entire stack.

One of the most asked-for features is the ability to publish your app to Docker Compose.
This is now available in the latest preview, and I'm excited to share how it works.

In this post, I'll walk you through how I used Aspire's **Docker publisher** to spin up a demo app that includes an API, a Postgres database, and a Redis cache.
Everything runs using Docker Compose, and Aspire generates the whole thing from C# code.

I'll show you how to set it up, explain what it's doing behind the scenes,
and give you a glimpse into how easy it is to take that setup and run it on a VPS or cloud server.

## The Demo App

The app is intentionally simple, just enough to demonstrate how Aspire wires things together.

- API project: a minimal .NET Web API
- Postgres: used for data storage
- Redis: used for caching

In a traditional setup, you'd manually connect these services, manage configuration files, handle environment variables,
and write a `docker-compose.yml` from scratch.

With Aspire, you declare everything in C# inside the AppHost project.
Here's a quick look at the setup:

```csharp {4}
var builder = DistributedApplication.CreateBuilder(args);

// Enables Docker publisher
builder.AddDockerComposeEnvironment("aspire-docker-demo");

var postgres = builder.AddPostgres("database")
    .WithDataVolume();

var database = postgres.AddDatabase("demo-db");

var redis = builder.AddRedis("cache");

var webApi = builder.AddProject<Projects.Web_Api>("web-api")
    .WithReference(database).WaitFor(postgres)
    .WithReference(redis).WaitFor(redis);

builder.Build().Run();
```

This gives you a development environment where Aspire runs Postgres and Redis in containers, and connects your API to them.

The `AddDockerComposeEnvironment` method enables the Docker publisher.
It's available in the `Aspire.Hosting.Docker` NuGet package, which is currently in preview.

```powershell
Install-Package Aspire.Hosting.Docker -Version 9.3.1-preview.1.25305.6
```

## Installing the Aspire CLI

To publish your app to Docker Compose, install the **Aspire CLI**:

```bash
dotnet tool install --global aspire.cli --prerelease
```

Then you can run the `publish` command:

```bash
aspire publish -o docker-compose-artifacts
```

This command will scan your solution for the Aspire project and generate a Docker Compose file and an `.env` file
based on the services you've defined.

<div className="centered">
  <Image
    src="blogs/mnw_149/aspire_publish.png"
    width={799}
    height={247}
    alt="Aspire publish command"
  />
</div>

## The Docker Compose File

Let's examine what Aspire created for us:

```yml
services:
  database:
    image: 'docker.io/library/postgres:17.4'
    environment:
      POSTGRES_HOST_AUTH_METHOD: 'scram-sha-256'
      POSTGRES_INITDB_ARGS: '--auth-host=scram-sha-256 --auth-local=scram-sha-256'
      POSTGRES_USER: 'postgres'
      POSTGRES_PASSWORD: '${DATABASE_PASSWORD}'
    ports:
      - '8000:5432'
    volumes:
      - type: 'volume'
        target: '/var/lib/postgresql/data'
        source: 'aspire.apphost-1f0ed76b33-database-data'
        read_only: false
    networks:
      - 'aspire'
  redis:
    image: 'docker.io/library/redis:7.4'
    command:
      - '-c'
      - 'redis-server --requirepass $$REDIS_PASSWORD'
    entrypoint:
      - '/bin/sh'
    environment:
      REDIS_PASSWORD: '${REDIS_PASSWORD}'
    ports:
      - '8001:6379'
    networks:
      - 'aspire'
  web-api:
    image: '${WEB_API_IMAGE}'
    environment:
      OTEL_DOTNET_EXPERIMENTAL_OTLP_EMIT_EXCEPTION_LOG_ATTRIBUTES: 'true'
      OTEL_DOTNET_EXPERIMENTAL_OTLP_EMIT_EVENT_LOG_ATTRIBUTES: 'true'
      OTEL_DOTNET_EXPERIMENTAL_OTLP_RETRY: 'in_memory'
      ASPNETCORE_FORWARDEDHEADERS_ENABLED: 'true'
      HTTP_PORTS: '8002'
      ConnectionStrings__demo-db: 'Host=database;Port=5432;Username=postgres;Password=${DATABASE_PASSWORD};Database=demo-db'
      ConnectionStrings__redis: 'redis:6379,password=${REDIS_PASSWORD}'
    ports:
      - '8003:8002'
      - '8005:8004'
    depends_on:
      database:
        condition: 'service_started'
      redis:
        condition: 'service_started'
    networks:
      - 'aspire'
networks:
  aspire:
    driver: 'bridge'
volumes:
  aspire.apphost-1f0ed76b33-database-data:
    driver: 'local'
```

This `docker-compose` file is generated from the C# code we wrote earlier.
It defines the services, their images, environment variables, ports, and dependencies.

The `.env` file contains some of the configuration we need:

```txt
# Parameter database-password
DATABASE_PASSWORD=<YOUR_STRONG_PASSWORD>

# Container image name for web-api
# Change this to the imaage name in the container registry
WEB_API_IMAGE=web-api:latest

# Parameter redis-password
REDIS_PASSWORD=<YOUR_STRONG_PASSWORD>
```

It contains the passwords for the database and Redis, as well as the image name for the API.
You'll need to replace the placeholders with actual values.
For the API image, you can build and tag the image yourself, or use a pre-built one from a registry.

## Publishing and Running on a VPS

Aspire doesn't deploy the app for you, but it gives you everything you need.

Once the Compose file is ready, deployment to a VPS is straightforward:

1. Copy the artifacts to your server using (`scp` or `git`).
2. SSH into the VPS.
3. Run `docker compose up -d` inside the artifact directory.

Make sure Docker and Docker Compose are installed on the server.

You can expose ports with a reverse proxy like Nginx or Caddy, and secure it with HTTPS using Let's Encrypt.

I'll cover this in more detail in a future post.

## Wrapping Up

.NET Aspire with Docker Compose provides a smooth developer experience and a simple way to deploy full-stack apps.

You define everything in C#, test it locally, and publish it with one command.
No need to write Compose files or manage infrastructure manually.
This opens up new possibilities for deploying and managing cloud-native apps.
You're not locked into a specific cloud provider, and you can easily move between environments.

Can I just say how much I love this?
I'm really excited about the future of cloud-native development with .NET and Aspire.

If you liked this article and want to learn how I structure larger apps, check out [**Modular Monolith Architecture**](/modular-monolith-architecture).
It walks you through building clean, scalable .NET applications with strong internal boundaries and maintainability in mind.

Thanks for reading and stay awesome!

---



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Integration tests with Testcontainers are powerful, but they can quickly become a maintenance nightmare if you don't follow the right patterns.

I've seen teams struggle with flaky tests, slow test suites, and configuration headaches that could have been avoided with better practices from the start.

Today, I'll show you the patterns that make [Testcontainers](https://testcontainers.com/) tests reliable, fast, and easy to maintain.

## How Testcontainers Changes Integration Testing

Traditional [**integration tests**](testcontainers-integration-testing-using-docker-in-dotnet) often rely on shared test databases or in-memory alternatives that don't match production behavior.
You either deal with test pollution between runs or sacrifice realism for speed.

Testcontainers solves this by spinning up real [Docker](https://www.docker.com/) containers for your dependencies.
Your tests run against actual PostgreSQL, Redis, or any other service you use in production.
When tests complete, containers are destroyed, giving you a clean slate every time.

The magic happens through Docker's API.
Testcontainers manages the entire lifecycle: pulling images, starting containers, waiting for readiness, and cleanup.
Your test code just needs to know how to connect.

## Prerequisites

First, make sure you have the necessary packages:

```powershell
Install-Package Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.Testing
Install-Package Testcontainers.PostgreSql
Install-Package Testcontainers.Redis
```

If you want to learn more about the basic setup, check out my article on
[**integrating testing with Testcontainers**](testcontainers-integration-testing-using-docker-in-dotnet).

## Creating Test Containers

Here's how to set up your containers with proper configuration:

```csharp
PostgreSqlContainer _postgresContainer = new PostgreSqlBuilder()
    .WithImage("postgres:17")
    .WithDatabase("devhabit")
    .WithUsername("postgres")
    .WithPassword("postgres")
    .Build();

RedisContainer _redisContainer = new RedisBuilder()
    .WithImage("redis:latest")
    .Build();
```

To start and stop containers cleanly across your test suite, implement `IAsyncLifetime` in your `WebApplicationFactory`:

```csharp
public sealed class IntegrationTestWebAppFactory : WebApplicationFactory<Program>, IAsyncLifetime
{
    public async Task InitializeAsync()
    {
        await _postgresContainer.StartAsync();
        await _redisContainer.StartAsync();
        // Start other dependencies here
    }

    public async Task DisposeAsync()
    {
        await _postgresContainer.StopAsync();
        await _redisContainer.StopAsync();
    }
}
```

This ensures containers are ready before tests run and cleaned up afterward.
This means no leftover Docker state or race conditions.

**A tip**: pin your image versions (like `postgres:17`) to avoid surprises from upstream changes

I learned this the hard way when a minor version update caused my tests to fail unexpectedly.

## Pass Configuration to Your App

The biggest mistake I see is hardcoding connection strings.
Testcontainers assigns dynamic ports.
Don't hardcode anything.

Instead, inject values via `WebApplicationFactory.ConfigureWebHost`:

```csharp
protected override void ConfigureWebHost(IWebHostBuilder builder)
{
    builder.UseSetting("ConnectionStrings:Database", _postgresContainer.GetConnectionString());
    builder.UseSetting("ConnectionStrings:Redis", _redisContainer.GetConnectionString());
}
```

The key is to use the `UseSetting` method to pass connection strings dynamically.
It also avoids any race conditions or conflicts with other tests that might run in parallel.

This ensures your tests always connect to the right ports, regardless of what Docker assigns.

There's no need to remove services from the service collection or manually configure them (contrary to what you might find online).
Just set the connection strings, and your application will use them automatically.

## Share Expensive Setup with xUnit Collection Fixtures

What's a test fixture?
A **fixture** is a shared context for your tests, allowing you to set up expensive resources like databases or message brokers once and reuse them across multiple tests.

This is where most teams get tripped up.
The choice between class and collection fixtures affects both test performance and isolation.

**Class Fixture** - One container per test class:

Use class fixtures when tests modify global state or when debugging test interactions becomes difficult.

```csharp {1}
public class AddItemToCartTests : IClassFixture<DevHabitWebAppFactory>
{
    private readonly DevHabitWebAppFactory _factory;

    public AddItemToCartTests(DevHabitWebAppFactory factory)
    {
        _factory = factory;
    }

    [Fact]
    public async Task Should_ReturnFailure_WhenNotEnoughQuantity() { ... }
}
```

**Collection Fixture** - One container shared across multiple test classes:

Use collection fixtures when your tests don't modify shared state or when you can reliably clean up between tests.

```csharp
[CollectionDefinition(nameof(IntegrationTestCollection))]
public sealed class IntegrationTestCollection : ICollectionFixture<DevHabitWebAppFactory>
{
}
```

Then apply it to your test classes:

```csharp {1}
[Collection(nameof(IntegrationTestCollection))]
public class AddItemToCartTests : IntegrationTestFixture
{
    public AddItemToCartTests(DevHabitWebAppFactory factory) : base(factory) { }

    [Fact]
    public async Task Should_ReturnFailure_WhenNotEnoughQuantity()
    {
        Guid customerId = await Sender.CreateCustomerAsync(Guid.NewGuid());
        var command = new AddItemToCartCommand(customerId, ticketTypeId, Quantity + 1);

        Result result = await Sender.Send(command);

        result.Error.Should().Be(TicketTypeErrors.NotEnoughQuantity(Quantity));
    }
}
```

When to use which:

- Class fixtures when you need full isolation between test classes (slower but safer)
- Collection fixtures when test classes don't interfere with each other (faster but requires discipline)

With collection fixtures, you have to take care of cleaning up any state that might persist between tests.
This could include resetting databases, clearing caches, or removing test data.
If you don't do this, you risk tests affecting each other, leading to flaky results.

## Utility Methods for Auth and Cleanup

Your fixture can expose helpers to simplify test writing:

```csharp
public async Task<HttpClient> CreateAuthenticatedClientAsync() { ... }

protected async Task CleanupDatabaseAsync() { ... }
```

These methods can handle authentication setup and database cleanup, so you don't have to repeat boilerplate code in every test.
This lets your test code focus on assertions, not setup.

## Writing Maintainable Integration Tests

With the infrastructure properly configured, your actual tests should focus on business logic:

```csharp
[Fact]
public async Task Should_ReturnFailure_WhenNotEnoughQuantity()
{
    //Arrange
    Guid customerId = await Sender.CreateCustomerAsync(Guid.NewGuid());
    var eventId = Guid.NewGuid();
    var ticketTypeId = Guid.NewGuid();

    await Sender.CreateEventWithTicketTypeAsync(eventId, ticketTypeId, Quantity);

    var command = new AddItemToCartCommand(customerId, ticketTypeId, Quantity + 1);

    //Act
    Result result = await Sender.Send(command);

    //Assert
    result.Error.Should().Be(TicketTypeErrors.NotEnoughQuantity(Quantity));
}
```

Notice how the tests focus on business rules rather than infrastructure concerns.
The container complexity is hidden behind well-designed base classes and helper methods.
You're not mocking Postgres or Redis, you're testing real behavior.

## Conclusion

Testcontainers transforms integration testing by giving you the confidence that comes from testing against real dependencies.
No more wondering if your in-memory database behavior matches production, or dealing with shared test environments that break when someone else runs their tests.

Start simple: pick one integration test that currently uses mocks or in-memory databases, and convert it to use Testcontainers.
You'll immediately notice the difference in confidence when that test passes.
Then gradually expand to cover your critical business flows.

If you want to learn how to structure your applications for testability from day one,
my [**Pragmatic Clean Architecture**](/pragmatic-clean-architecture) course covers integration testing with Testcontainers alongside domain modeling,
API design, and the architectural decisions that make applications maintainable over time.

That's all for today.

See you next week.

---



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Your .NET application is running in production, but you're flying blind.

When something breaks, you're stuck digging through logs, guessing at performance bottlenecks,
and trying to piece together what actually happened across your distributed system.

That ends today.

[Grafana](https://grafana.com/) is a complete observability platform that unifies metrics, logs, and traces in one place.

With Grafana, you get:

- **Unified dashboards** that combine metrics, logs, and traces
- **Advanced alerting** that actually works when things go wrong
- **Deep trace analysis** to understand request flows across services
- **Log correlation** that connects your traces to the exact log entries that matter

[Grafana Cloud](https://grafana.com/products/cloud/) makes this even easier.
No infrastructure to manage, automatic scaling, and built-in integrations with [OpenTelemetry](https://opentelemetry.io/).
There's a generous free tier that allows you to get started without any upfront costs.

When you combine Grafana with OpenTelemetry, you get vendor-neutral observability that actually delivers insights instead of just pretty charts.

## Setting Up OpenTelemetry in .NET

First, install the core OpenTelemetry packages:

```powershell
Install-Package OpenTelemetry.Extensions.Hosting
Install-Package OpenTelemetry.Exporter.OpenTelemetryProtocol
Install-Package OpenTelemetry.Instrumentation.AspNetCore
Install-Package OpenTelemetry.Instrumentation.Http
```

You can also add instrumentation for other libraries as needed:

```powershell
Install-Package OpenTelemetry.Instrumentation.EntityFrameworkCore
Install-Package OpenTelemetry.Instrumentation.StackExchangeRedis
Install-Package Npgsql.OpenTelemetry
```

Configure OpenTelemetry in your `Program.cs`:

```csharp
var builder = WebApplication.CreateBuilder(args);

builder.Services
    .AddOpenTelemetry()
    .ConfigureResource(resource => resource.AddService(serviceName))
    .WithTracing(tracing =>
    {
        tracing
            .AddAspNetCoreInstrumentation()
            .AddHttpClientInstrumentation()
            .AddEntityFrameworkCoreInstrumentation()
            .AddRedisInstrumentation()
            .AddNpgsql();

        tracing.AddOtlpExporter();
    });

builder.Logging.AddOpenTelemetry(logging =>
{
    logging.IncludeScopes = true;
    logging.IncludeFormattedMessage = true;

    logging.AddOtlpExporter();
});

var app = builder.Build();

// Your app configuration...

app.Run();
```

This configuration:

- Sets up [**tracing with OpenTelemetry**](introduction-to-distributed-tracing-with-opentelemetry-in-dotnet)
- Sets up automatic instrumentation for ASP.NET Core and HTTP requests
- Adds Entity Framework Core and Redis instrumentation
- Configures PostgreSQL instrumentation if you're using Npgsql
- Configures OTLP export for traces and logs (we can also add metrics later)

## Configuring OTLP Export to Grafana Cloud

Get your Grafana Cloud credentials:

1. Log into [Grafana Cloud](https://grafana.com/auth/sign-up/create-user)

2. Go to **My Account** → **Stack Details**

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_setup.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud stack details"
/>

3. Find your **OTLP endpoint** (looks like `https://otlp-gateway-prod-eu-west-2.grafana.net/otlp`)

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_setup_endpoint.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud endpoint"
/>

4. Generate an **API token** with permissions

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_setup_token.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud token"
/>

You should also see the environment variables you can use to configure OpenTelemetry:

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_setup_env_vars.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud environment variables"
/>

Configure the OTLP exporter in your `appsettings.json`:

```json
{
  "OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_ENDPOINT": "https://otlp-gateway-prod-eu-west-2.grafana.net/otlp",
  "OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_PROTOCOL": "http/protobuf",
  "OTEL_EXPORTER_OTLP_HEADERS": "Authorization=Basic <your-base64-encoded-token>"
}
```

You can also set these as environment variables in your hosting environment.

## Viewing and Analyzing Data in Grafana

Start your application and generate some traffic.
Now head to your Grafana Cloud instance.

**Traces**

If everything is set up correctly, you should see traces from your application in the **Traces** section.

Here's an example of a trace view in Grafana Cloud.
It's a `POST users/register` request that contains multiple spans:

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_trace_1.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud trace example"
/>

Here's another example of a trace that includes messages sent to a message broker (like RabbitMQ or Kafka).

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_trace_2.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud trace example"
/>

**Logs**

You can also view logs in Grafana Cloud.

Here's an example of a log view that shows multiple log entries for our application.

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_logs_1.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud logs example"
/>

You can drill down into individual log entries, filter by severity, and search for specific terms.

<Image
  src="blogs/mnw_147/grafana_logs_2.png"
  width={1919}
  height={1079}
  alt="Grafana cloud logs example"
/>

OpenTelemetry automatically correlates your logs with traces.
In the trace detail view, click **Logs** to see all log entries that occurred during that request.

Your logs will include trace and span IDs.

## Conclusion

You now have full observability for your .NET application.

When something goes wrong in production, you won't be guessing anymore.
You'll see exactly which requests were slow, what errors occurred, and how they propagated through your system.

Grafana gives you the dashboards and alerting to catch problems before users do.
OpenTelemetry gives you the detailed traces to understand exactly what happened.

This setup scales from a single service to hundreds of microservices without changing your instrumentation code.

**Ready to take your observability further?**

This article showed you the basics, but modern applications need advanced patterns like distributed tracing across event-driven architectures,
custom instrumentation strategies, and observability-driven development practices.

I cover all of this in-depth in my [**Modular Monolith Architecture**](/modular-monolith-architecture) course,
where you'll learn how to implement OpenTelemetry across complex, event-driven systems that actually scale in production.

That's all for today.

See you next Saturday.

---


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